Spirituality Under the Magnifying Glass: A Critical Analysis of Martínez-Taboas’s Evaluation of the Spiritual Dimension in Scientific Research
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.37226/rcp.v10i1.18823Keywords:
spirituality, religion, research, definition, transcendenceAbstract
The study of spirituality and religion within the context of health is expanding rapidly. However, the definition of spirituality has been the subject of extensive debate due to a lack of consensus. Recently, Martínez-Taboas (2026) critically examined the concept of spirituality, highlighting the wide range of ambiguous definitions and validity issues associated with spirituality assessment tools. This article responds to the inferences drawn from the author's arguments—specifically, the conclusion that spirituality is a construct of limited value, utility, and credibility in scientific research that needs to be rescued from pseudoscience. We also discuss methodological recommendations for using traditional spirituality instruments without falling into tautological relationships, highlight the contributions of qualitative research to the field of spirituality, and analyze the implications of the lack of consensus regarding its definition. We conclude that while methodological criticisms of the field of spirituality are valid, they are not robust enough to undermine its credibility.
References
Altgassen, E., Geiger, M., & Wilhelm, O. (2024). Do you mind a closer look? A jingle-jangle fallacy perspective on mindfulness. European Journal of Personality, 38(2), 365–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/08902070231174575 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/08902070231174575
Alvarado, C. S., & Martínez-Taboas, A. (2002). Parapsicología: Falacias y errores que todo psicólogo debe reconocer. Revista Puertorriqueña de Psicología, 13(1), 99-125. https://www.repsasppr.net/index.php/reps/article/view/116
Anvari, F., Alsalti, T., Oehler, L. A., Marion, Z., Hussey, I., Elson, M., & Arslan, R. C. (2025). A fragmented field: Construct and measure prolif-eration in psychology. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/25152459251360642 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/25152459251360642
Barret, J.L. (2004). Why would anyone believe in God? AltaMira Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5040/9798216409243
Barret, J.L. (2019). Born believers: The science of children's religious belief. Atria.
Berger, P. L. (1974). Some second thoughts on substantive versus functional definitions of religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 13(2), 125–133. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1384374
Blackburn, S. (2008). The Oxford dictionary of philosophy (2nd rev. ed.). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199541430.001.0001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199541430.001.0001
Bringmann, L. F., Elmer, T., & Eronen, M. I. (2022). Back to basics: The importance of conceptual clarification in psychological science. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 31(4), 340-346. https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221096485 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/09637214221096485
Captari, L. E., Hook, J. N., Hoyt, W., Davis, D. E., McElroy‐Heltzel, S. E., & Worthington, E. L., Jr. (2018). Integrating clients’ religion and spirituali-ty within psychotherapy: A comprehensive meta‐analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(11), 1938–1951. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22681 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22681
Cardeña, E. (2018). The experimental evidence for parapsychological phenomena: A review. The American psychologist, 73(5), 663–677. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000236 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000236
Chems-Maarif, R., Cavanagh, K., Baer, R., Gu, J., & Strauss, C. (2025). Defining mindfulness: A review of existing definitions and suggested refinements. Mindfulness, 16(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-024-02507-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-024-02507-2
Costa, D. S. J., Mercieca-Bebber, R., Rutherford, C., Tait, M.-A., & King, M. T. (2021). How is quality of life defined and assessed in published re-search? Quality of Life Research, 30(8), 2109–2121. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-021-02826-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-021-02826-0
Coyle, A. (2008). Qualitative methods and ‘the (partly) ineffable’ in psycho-logical research on religion and spirituality. Qualitative Research in Psy-chology, 5(1), 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880701863583 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14780880701863583
Davis, E. B., Lacey, E. K., Heydt, E. J., LaBouff, J. P., Barker, S. B., Van Elk, M., & Ladd, K. L. (2024). Sixty years of studying the sacred: Auditing and advancing the psychology of religion and spirituality. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 16(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000485 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000485
Davis, E.B., Chen, Z.J., Cowden, R.G., VanderWeele, T.J., Oberg, S., Bivins, G., Newcity, C., Song, E., & Koenig, H.G. (2026). An overview of sys-tematic reviews and meta-analyses on the association between reli-gion/spirituality and health/well-being. In J. R. Webb (Ed.), Handbook of spirituality health and well-being: a psychological perspective (pp. 380-395). Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003440048-25
Den-Hartigh, R. J. R., & Hill, Y. (2022). Conceptualizing and measur-ing psychological resilience: What can we learn from physics? New Ideas in Psychology, 66, Article 100934. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100934 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100934
Denckla, C. A., Cicchetti, D., Kubzansky, L. D., Seedat, S., Teicher, M. H., Williams, D. R., & Koenen, K. C. (2020). Psychological resili-ence: An update on definitions, a critical appraisal, and research recommendations. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11(1), Article 1822064. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1822064 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1822064
Eliade, M. (1967). Myths, dreams, and mysteries: The encounter between contemporary faiths and archaic realities. Harper & Row.
García-Robles, R., Pagán-Torres, O.M., & Martínez-Taboas, A. (2025, 7 de noviembre). Expandiendo la diversidad en nuestra profesión: Intersección entre religión, espiritualidad y psicología. Convención Anual de la Asociación de Psicología de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Garssen, B., Visser, A., & de Jager Meezenbroek, E. (2016). Examining whether spirituality predicts subjective well-being: How to avoid tautology. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 8(2), 141–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000025 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000025
Hall, J. A., & Schwartz, R. (2022). Empathy, an important but prob-lematic concept. The Journal of social psychology, 162(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2021.2004670 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2021.2004670
Hanfstingl, B., Mitterer, C., & Abbas, K. (2025). Uncovering jingle and jangle fallacies: A systematic review mapping future directions. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 233(4), 261–266. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000602 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000602
Hanfstingl, B., Oberleiter, S., Pietschnig, J., Tran, U. S., & Voracek, M. (2024). Detecting jingle and jangle fallacies by identifying consist-encies and variabilities in study specifications - a call for research. Frontiers in psychology, 15, 1404060. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1404060 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1404060
Hardy, A. C. (1979). The spiritual nature of man: A study of contemporary religious experience. Clarendon Press.
Harris, S. (2014). Waking Up: A guide to spirituality without religion. Simon & Schuster.
Hayden, L., Byrne, E., Deegan, A., Dunne, S., & Gallagher, P. (2022). A qualitative meta-synthesis examining spirituality as experi-enced by individuals living with terminal cancer. Health Psycholo-gy Open, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/20551029221121526 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/20551029221121526
Hood, R. W., Jr. (2013). Methodological diversity in the psychology of religion and spirituality. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J. W. Jones (Eds.), APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (Vol. 1): Context, theory, and research (pp. 79–102). American Psy-chological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14045-004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/14045-004
Hood, R. W., Jr. (2024). The history and current status of the psychol-ogy of religion and spirituality. In L. J. Miller (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (2nd ed., pp. 1–21). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190905538.013.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190905538.013.1
King, L. A., & Hicks, J. A. (2021). The science of meaning in life. Annual Review of Psychology, 72, 561–584. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-072420-122921 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-072420-122921
Koenig H. G. (2008). Concerns about measuring "spirituality" in research. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 196(5), 349–355. https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31816ff796 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/NMD.0b013e31816ff796
Koenig, H. G. (2018). Religion and mental health: Research and clinical applications. Academic Press.
Koenig, H. G., & Carey, L. B. (2024). Religion, spirituality and health research: Warning of contaminated scales. Journal of Religion and Health, 63(5), 3729–3743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-024-02112-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-024-02112-6
Koenig, H. G., & Carey, L. B. (2025). Approaches for analyzing the relationship between spirituality and health using measures con-taminated with indicators of mental and social health. Journal of Religion and Health, 64(2), 1276–1286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-025-02249-y DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-025-02249-y
Koenig, H.G., Vanderweele, T., & Peteet, J.R. (2024). Handbook of religion and health. Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190088859.001.0001
Ladd, K. L., Basu, J., DeMarinis, V., Ok, Ü., Zangari, W., & Ladd, M. L. (Eds.). (2026). The Cambridge handbook of the international psycholo-gy of religion. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108771122
Martínez-Taboas, A. (2019). Religión y espiritualidad: Temáticas ineludibles en el quehacer psicológico. Ciencias de la Conducta, 34(1), 231-256. https://cienciasdelaconducta.org/index.php/cdc/article/view/20
Martínez-Taboas, A. (2026). El concepto de espiritualidad: Posturas críticas hacia su utilidad en la psicología. Revista Caribeña de Psicología, 10(1), e18399. https://doi.org/10.37226/rcp.v10i1.18399 DOI: https://doi.org/10.37226/rcp.v10i1.18399
Martínez-Taboas, A., Francia-Martínez, M., & González-Rivera, J. A. (2025). Factores comunes, técnicas específicas, adaptaciones culturales y mirada decolonial. En A. Martínez-Taboas, M. Francia-Martínez, M., & J.A. González-Rivera (Eds.). Psicoterapias efectivas en personas adultas: Modelos y aplicaciones clínicas (pp.330-348). Innova Psychological Institute.
Maxwell, J. A., & Levitt, H. M. (2023). How qualitative methods advance the study of causation in psychotherapy research. Psy-chotherapy research: journal of the Society for Psychotherapy Research, 33(8), 1019–1030. https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2023.2181112 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10503307.2023.2181112
Miller, L. J. (Ed.). (2024). The Oxford handbook of psychology and spiritu-ality (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Milner, K., Crawford, P., Edgley, A., Hare-Duke, L., & Slade, M. (2019). The experiences of spirituality among adults with mental health difficulties: A qualitative systematic review. Epidemiology and psychiatric sciences, 29, e34. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796019000234 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796019000234
Moosavi, L. (2025). The false promise of decolonial research: The complexities and limitations of decolonising methods and meth-odologies. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 28(6), 651–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2025.2569256 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2025.2569256
Moreira-Almeida, A., & Bhugra, D. (2021). Religion, spirituality, and mental health: Setting the scene. In A. Moreira-Almeida, B. P. Mosqueiro, & D. Bhugra (Eds.), Spirituality and mental health across cultures (pp. 11–26). Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198846833.003.0002
Newberg, A., & Waldman, M. R. (2006). Why we believe what we believe: Uncovering our biological need for meaning, spirituality, and truth. Free Press.
Oman, D. (2013). Defining religion and spirituality. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirit-uality (2nd ed., pp. 23–47). The Guilford Press.
Oman, D. (2026). Spirituality, health, and well-being: Field overview and emerging frontiers. En J. R. Webb (Ed.), Handbook of spirituali-ty, health, and well-being: A psychological perspective (pp. 37-75). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003440048-4
Oman, D., & Syme, S. L. (2018). Weighing the evidence: What is revealed by 100+ meta-analyses and systematic reviews of reli-gion/spirituality and health? In D. Oman (Ed.), Why religion and spirituality matter for public health: Evidence, implications, and re-sources (pp. 261–281). Springer. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73966-3_15
Pagán-Torres, O. M., González-Rivera, J.A., & Martínez-Taboas, A. (2022, 4 de noviembre). Religiosidad y espiritualidad: ¿Necesario, beneficioso o dañino integrarlas en las prácticas psicológicas? Convención Anual de la Asociación de Psicología de Puerto Rico, Ponce, Puerto Rico.
Pargament, K. I. (2023). From research to practice: three waves in the evolution of the psychology of religion and spirituality. Spiritual Psychology and Counseling, 8(3), 207-225. https://doi.org/10.37898/spc.2023.8.3.191 DOI: https://doi.org/10.37898/spc.2023.8.3.191
Piedmont, R. L. (1999). Does spirituality represent the sixth factor of personality? Spiritual transcendence and the Five-Factor Model. Journal of Personality, 67(6), 985–1013. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00080 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00080
Richards, P. S., Allen, G. E. K., & Judd, D. K. (Eds.). (2023). Handbook of spiritually integrated psychotherapies. American Psychological As-sociation. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000338-000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0000338-000
Rosmarin, D. H., & Koenig, H. G. (Eds.). (2020). Handbook of spirituali-ty, religion, and mental health (2nd ed.). Elsevier Academic Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816766-3.00003-3
Rule, A., Abbey, C., Wang, H., Rozelle, S., & Singh, M. K. (2024). Measurement of flourishing: a scoping review. Frontiers in psychol-ogy, 15, 1293943. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1293943 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1293943
Shafranske, E. P., & Gorsuch, R. L. (1984). Factors associated with the perception of spirituality in psychotherapy. Journal of Transperson-al Psychology, 16(2), 231–241.
Skalski-Bednarz, S., Toussaint, L. L., Konaszewski, K., Surzykiewicz, J., & Worthington, E. L. (2026). Models and Mechanisms of the asso-ciation of spirituality with health and well-being. In J. R. Webb (Editor), Handbook of spirituality, health, and well-Being (pp. 163–177). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003440048-11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003440048-11
Solomon, R. C. (2002). Spirituality for the skeptic: The thoughtful love of life. Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/0195134672.001.0001
Sulmasy D. P. (2002). A biopsychosocial-spiritual model for the care of patients at the end of life. The Gerontologist, 42 Spec No 3, 24–33. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/42.suppl_3.24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/42.suppl_3.24
Underwood, L. G. (2011). The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale: Overview and results. Religions, 2(1), 29–50. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010029 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel2010029
VanderWeele, T. J. (2017). Religious communities and human flour-ishing. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(6), 479–481. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1702996114 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417721526
Watts, F. N. (2024). Parameters and limitations of current conceptual-izations. In L. J. Miller (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of psychology and spirituality (2nd ed., pp. 49–68). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190905538.013.3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190905538.013.3
Webb, J. R. (Ed.). (2026). Handbook of spirituality, health, and well-being: A psychological perspective. Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003440048
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Orlando Pagan, Mónica Nieves-Molina, María F. Fernández-Vélez, Yanirette López-Pérez
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
